劍橋雅思閱讀8(test1)答案分析
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劍橋雅思閱讀8原文(test1)
READING PASSAGE 1
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-13, which are based on Reading Passage 1 below.
A Chronicle of Timekeeping
Our conception of time depends on the way we measure it
A According to archaeological evidence, at least 5,000 years ago, and long before the advent of the Roman Empire, the Babylonians began to measure time, introducing calendars to co-ordinate communal activities, to plan the shipment of goods and, in particular, to regulate planting and harvesting. They based their calendars on three natural cycles: the solar day, marked by the successive periods of light and darkness as the earth rotates on its axis; the lunar month, following the phases of the moon as it orbits the earth; and the solar year, defined by the changing seasons that accompany our planet's revolution around the sun.
B Before the invention of artificial light, the moon had greater social impact. And, for those living near the equator in particular, its waxing and waning was more conspicuous than the passing of the seasons. Hence, the calendars that were developed at the lower latitudes were influenced more by the lunar cycle than by the solar year. In more northern climes, however, where seasonal agriculture was practised, the solar year became more crucial. As the Roman Empire expanded northward, it organised its activity chart for the most part around the solar year.
C Centuries before the Roman Empire, the Egyptians had formulated a municipal calendar having 12 months of 30 days, with five days added to approximate the solar year. Each period of ten days was marked by the appearance of special groups of stars called decans. At the rise of the star Sirius just before sunrise, which occurred around the all-important annual flooding of the Nile, 12 decans could be seen spanning the heavens. The cosmic significance the Egyptians placed in the 12 decans led them to develop a system in which each interval of darkness (and later, each interval of daylight) was divided into a dozen equal parts. These periods became known as temporal hours because their duration varied according to the changing length of days and nights with the passing of the seasons. Summer hours were long, winter ones short; only at the spring and autumn equinoxes were the hours of daylight and darkness equal. Temporal hours, which were first adopted by the Greeks and then the Romans, who disseminated them through Europe, remained in use for more than 2,500 years.
D In order to track temporal hours during the day, inventors created sundials, which indicate time by the length or direction of the sun's shadow. The sundial's counterpart, the water clock, was designed to measure temporal hours at night. One of the first water clocks was a basin with a small hole near the bottom through which the water dripped out. The falling water level denoted the passing hour as it dipped below hour lines inscribed on the inner surface. Although these devices performed satisfactorily around the Mediterranean, they could not always be depended on in the cloudy and often freezing weather of northern Europe.
E The advent of the mechanical clock meant that although it could be adjusted to maintain temporal hours, it was naturally suited to keeping equal ones. With these, however, arose the question of when to begin counting, and so, in the early 14th century, a number of systems evolved. The schemes that divided the day into 24 equal parts varied according to the start of the count: Italian hours began at sunset, Babylonian hours at sunrise, astronomical hours at midday and 'great clock' hours, used for some large public clocks in Germany, at midnight. Eventually these were superseded by 'small clock', or French, hours, which split the day into two 12-hour periods commencing at midnight.
F The earliest recorded weight-driven mechanical clock was built in 1283 in Bedfordshire in England. The revolutionary aspect of this new timekeeper was neither the descending weight that provided its motive force nor the gear wheels (which had been around for at least 1,300 years) that transferred the power; it was the part called the escapement. In the early 1400s came the invention of the coiled spring or fusee which maintained constant force to the gear wheels of the timekeeper despite the changing tension of its mainspring. By the 16th century, a pendulum clock had been devised, but the pendulum swung in a large arc and thus was not very efficient.
G To address this, a variation on the original escapement was invented in 1670, in England. It was called the anchor escapement, which was a lever-based device shaped like a ship's anchor. The motion of a pendulum rocks this device so that it catches and then releases each tooth of the escape wheel, in turn allowing it to turn a precise amount. Unlike the original form used in early pendulum clocks, the anchor escapement permitted the pendulum to travel in a very small arc. Moreover, this invention allowed the use of a long pendulum which could beat once a second and thus led to the development of a new floor-standing case design, which became known as the grandfather clock.
H Today, highly accurate timekeeping instruments set the beat for most electronic devices. Nearly all computers contain a quartz-crystal clock to regulate their operation. Moreover, not only do time signals beamed down from Global Positioning System satellites calibrate the functions of precision navigation equipment, they do so as well for mobile phones, instant stock-trading systems and nationwide power-distribution grids. So integral have these time-based technologies become to day-to-day existence that our dependency on them is recognised only when they fail to work.
Questions 1-4
Reading Passage 1 has eight paragraphs, A-H.
Which paragraph contains the following information?
Write the correct letter, A-H, in boxes 1-4 on your answer sheet.
1 a description of an early timekeeping invention affected by cold temperatures
2 an explanation of the importance of geography in the development of the calendar
in farming communities
3 a description of the origins of the pendulum clock
4 details of the simultaneous efforts of different societies to calculate time using
uniform hours
Questions 5-8
Look at the following events (Questions 5-8) and the list of nationalities below.
Match each event with the correct nationality, A-F.
Write the correct letter, A-F, in boxes 5-8 on your answer sheet.
5 They devised a civil calendar in which the months were equal in length.
6 They divided the day into two equal halves.
7 They developed a new cabinet shape for a type of timekeeper.
8 They created a calendar to organise public events and work schedules.
List of Nationalities
A Babylonians
B Egyptians
C Greeks
D English
E Germans
F French
Questions 9-13
Label the diagram below.
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 9-13 on your answer sheet.
圖片10
READING PASSAGE 2
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14-26, which are based on Reading
Passage 2 on the following pages.
Questions 14-19
Reading Passage 2 has seven paragraphs, A-G.
Choose the correct heading for paragraphs A and C-G from the list below.
Write the correct number, i-x, in boxes 14-19 on your answer sheet.
List of Headings
i Disobeying FAA regulations
ii Aviation disaster prompts action
iii Two coincidental developments
iv Setting altitude zones
v An oversimplified view
vi Controlling pilots’ licences
vii Defining airspace categories
viii Setting Rules to weather conditions
ix Taking off safely
x First steps towards ATC
14 Paragraph A
Example Answer
Paragraph B x
15 Paragraph C
16 Paragraph D
17 Paragraph E
18 Paragraph F
19 Paragraph G
AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL
IN THE USA
A An accident that occurred in the skies over the Grand Canyon in 1956 resulted in the establishment of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to regulate and oversee the operation of aircraft in the skies over the United States, which were becoming quite congested. The resulting structure of air traffic control has greatly increased the safety of flight in the United States, and similar air traffic control procedures are also in place over much of the rest of the world.
B Rudimentary air traffic control (ATC) existed well before the Grand Canyon disaster. As early as the 1920s, the earliest air traffic controllers manually guided aircraft in the vicinity of the airports, using lights and flags, while beacons and flashing lights were placed along cross-country routes to establish the earliest airways. However, this purely visual system was useless in bad weather, and, by the 1930s, radio communication was coming into use for ATC. The first region to have something approximating today's ATC was New York City, with other major metropolitan areas following soon after.
C In the 1940s, ATC centres could and did take advantage of the newly developed radar and improved radio communication brought about by the Second World War, but the system remained rudimentary. It was only after the creation of the FAA that full-scale regulation of America's airspace took place, and this was fortuitous, for the advent of the jet engine suddenly resulted in a large number of very fast planes, reducing pilots' margin of error and practically demanding some set of rules to keep everyone well separated and operating safely in the air.
D Many people think that ATC consists of a row of controllers sitting in front of their radar screens at the nation's airports, telling arriving and departing traffic what to do. This is a very incomplete part of the picture. The FAA realised that the airspace over the United States would at any time have many different kinds of planes, flying for many different purposes, in a variety of weather conditions, and the same kind of structure was needed to accommodate all of them.
E To meet this challenge, the following elements were put into effect. First, ATC extends over virtually the entire United States. In general, from 365m above the ground and higher, the entire country is blanketed by controlled airspace. In certain areas, mainly near airports, controlled airspace extends down to 215m above the ground, and, in the immediate vicinity of an airport, all the way down to the surface. Controlled airspace is that airspace in which FAA regulations apply. Elsewhere, in uncontrolled airspace, pilots are bound by fewer regulations. In this way, the recreational pilot who simply wishes to go flying for a while without all the restrictions imposed by the FAA has only to stay in uncontrolled airspace, below 365m, while the pilot who does want the protection afforded by ATC can easily enter the controlled airspace.
F The FAA then recognised two types of operating environments. In good meteorological conditions, flying would be permitted under Visual Flight Rules (VFR), which suggests a strong reliance on visual cues to maintain an acceptable level of safety. Poor visibility necessitated a set of Instrumental Flight Rules (IFR), under which the pilot relied on altitude and navigational information provided by the plane's instrument panel to fly safely. On a clear day, a pilot in controlled airspace can choose a VFR or IFR flight plan, and the FAA regulations were devised in a way which accommodates both VFR and IFR operations in the same airspace. However, a pilot can only choose to fly IFR if they possess an instrument rating which is above and beyond the basic pilot's license that must also be held.
G Controlled airspace is divided into several different types, designated by letters of the alphabet. Uncontrolled airspace is designated Class F, while controlled airspace below 5,490m above sea level and not in the vicinity of an airport is Class E. All airspace above 5,490m is designated Class A. The reason for the division of Class E and Class A airspace stems from the type of planes operating in them. Generally, Class E airspace is where one finds general aviation aircraft (few of which can climb above 5,490m anyway), and commercial turboprop aircraft. Above 5,490m is the realm of the heavy jets, since jet engines operate more efficiently at higher altitudes. The difference between Class E and A airspace is that in Class A, all operations are IFR, and pilots must be instrument-rated, that is, skilled and licensed in aircraft instrumentation. This is because ATC control of the entire space is essential. Three other types of airspace, Classes D, C and B, govern the vicinity of airports. These correspond roughly to small municipal, medium-sized metropolitan and major metropolitan airports respectively, and encompass an increasingly rigorous set of regulations. For example, all a VFR pilot has to do to enter Class C airspace is establish two-way radio contact with ATC. No explicit permission from ATC to enter is needed, although the pilot must continue to obey all regulations governing VFR flight. To enter Class B airspace, such as on approach to a major metropolitan airport, an explicit ATC clearance is required. The private pilot who cruises without permission into this airspace risks losing their license.
Questions 20-26
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 2?
In boxes 20-26 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
20 The FAA was created as a result of the introduction of the jet engine.
21 Air Traffic Control started after the Grand Canyon crash in 1956.
22 Beacons and flashing lights are still used by ATC today.
23 Some improvements were made in radio communication during World War II.
24 Class F airspace is airspace which is below 365m and not near airports.
25 All aircraft in Class E airspace must use IFR.
26 A pilot entering Class C airspace is flying over an average-sized city.
READING PASSAGE 3
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 27-40, which are based on Reading Passage 3 below.
TELEPATHY
Can human beings communicate by thought alone? For more than a century the issue of telepathy has divided the scientific community, and even today it still sparks bitter controversy among top academics
Since the 1970s, parapsychologists at leading universities and research institutes around the world have risked the derision of sceptical colleagues by putting the various claims for telepathy to the test in dozens of rigorous scientific studies. The results and their implications are dividing even the researchers who uncovered them.
Some researchers say the results constitute compelling evidence that telepathy is genuine. Other parapsychologists believe the field is on the brink of collapse, having tried to produce definitive scientific proof and failed. Sceptics and advocates alike do concur on one issue, however: that the most impressive evidence so far has come from the so-called 'ganzfeld' experiments, a German term that means 'whole field'. Reports of telepathic experiences had by people during meditation led parapsychologists to suspect that telepathy might involve 'signals' passing between people that were so faint that they were usually swamped by normal brain activity. In this case, such signals might be more easily detected by those experiencing meditation — like tranquillity in a relaxing 'whole field' of light, sound and warmth.
The ganzfeld experiment tries to recreate these conditions with participants sitting in soft reclining chairs in a sealed room, listening to relaxing sounds while their eyes are covered with special filters letting in only soft pink light. In early ganzfeld experiments, the telepathy test involved identification of a picture chosen from a random selection of four taken from a large image bank. The idea was that a person acting as a 'sender' would attempt to beam the image over to the 'receiver' relaxing in the sealed room. Once the session was over, this person was asked to identify which of the four images had been used. Random guessing would give a hit-rate of 25 per cent; if telepathy is real, however, the hit-rate would be higher. In 1982, the results from the first ganzfeld studies were analysed by one of its pioneers, the American parapsychologist Charles Honorton. They pointed to typical hit-rates of better than 30 per cent — a small effect, but one which statistical tests suggested could not be put down to chance.
The implication was that the ganzfeld method had revealed real evidence for telepathy. But there was a crucial flaw in this argument — one routinely overlooked in more conventional areas of science. Just because chance had been ruled out as an explanation did not prove telepathy must exist; there were many other ways of getting positive results. These ranged from 'sensory leakage' — where clues about the pictures accidentally reach the receiver — to outright fraud. In response, the researchers issued a review of all the ganzfeld studies done up to 1985 to show that 80 per cent had found statistically significant evidence. However, they also agreed that there were still too many problems in the experiments which could lead to positive results, and they drew up a list demanding new standards for future research.
After this, many researchers switched to autoganzfeld tests — an automated variant of the technique which used computers to perform many of the key tasks such as the random selection of images. By minimising human involvement, the idea was to minimise the risk of flawed results. In 1987, results from hundreds of autoganzfeld tests were studied by Honorton in a 'meta-analysis', a statistical technique for finding the overall results from a set of studies. Though less compelling than before, the outcome was still impressive.
Yet some parapsychologists remain disturbed by the lack of consistency between individual ganzfeld studies. Defenders of telepathy point out that demanding impressive evidence from every study ignores one basic statistical fact: it takes large samples to detect small effects. If, as current results suggest, telepathy produces hit-rates only marginally above the 25 per cent expected by chance, it's unlikely to be detected by a typical ganzfeld study involving around 40 people: the group is just not big enough. Only when many studies are combined in a meta-analysis will the faint signal of telepathy really become apparent. And that is what researchers do seem to be finding.
What they are certainly not finding, however, is any change in attitude of mainstream scientists: most still totally reject the very idea of telepathy. The problem stems at least in part from the lack of any plausible mechanism for telepathy.
Various theories have been put forward, many focusing on esoteric ideas from theoretical physics. They include 'quantum entanglement', in which events affecting one group of atoms instantly affect another group, no matter how far apart they may be. While physicists have demonstrated entanglement with specially prepared atoms, no-one knows if it also exists between atoms making up human minds. Answering such questions would transform parapsychology. This has prompted some researchers to argue that the future lies not in collecting more evidence for telepathy, but in probing possible mechanisms. Some work has begun already, with researchers trying to identify people who are particularly successful in autoganzfeld trials. Early results show that creative and artistic people do much better than average: in one study at the University of Edinburgh, musicians achieved a hit-rate of 56 per cent. Perhaps more tests like these will eventually give the researchers the evidence they are seeking and strengthen the case for the existence of telepathy.
Questions 27-30
Complete each sentence with the correct ending, A-G, below.
Write the correct letter, A-G, in boxes 27-30 on your answer sheet.
27 Researchers with differing attitudes towards telepathy agree on
28 Reports of experiences during meditation indicated
29 Attitudes to parapsychology would alter drastically with
30 Recent autoganzfeld trials suggest that success rates will improve with
A the discovery of a mechanism for telepathy
B the need to create a suitable environment for telepathy.
C their claims of a high success rate.
D a solution to the problem posed by random guessing.
E the significance of the ganzfeld experiments.
F a more careful selection of subjects.
G a need to keep altering conditions.
Questions 31-40
Complete the table below.
Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 31-40 on your answer sheet.
Telepathy Experiments
Name/Date
Description Result Flaw
Ganzfeld
Studies
1982 Involved a person
acting as a
31..............
who picked out one
a random selection
of four, and a
33..............,
who then tried to
identify it. Hit-rates were
higher than with
random guessing. Positive results
could be produced
by factors such as
35.............. .
Autoganzfeld
studies
1987 36.............
were used for key
tasks to limit the
amount of
37..............
in carrying out the
test. The results were
then subjected to
a 38............. The 39..........
between different
test results was
put down to the
fact that sample
groups were not
40...................(as
with most ganzfeld
Studies).
劍橋雅思閱讀8原文參考譯文(test1)
PASSAGE 1參考譯文：
時間記錄的歷史
我們對時間的概念取決於我們測量時間的方式
有考古證據表明，至少5000年前，早在羅馬帝國尚未出現之時，巴比倫人就開始測量時間，他們引進日曆來統籌公共活動，計劃貨物裝運，特別是管控作物種植和收割。日曆的編排基於三個自然週期：以由地球繞地軸自轉形成的連續的光明與黑喑爲標記的太陽日;以由月球環繞地球公轉形成的月相來衡量的太陰月;以及根據地球繞太陽公轉形成的四季來定義的迴歸年。
在人造光發明以前，月亮對社會產生的影響尤爲顯著。尤其對於赤道附近的居民而言，月圓月缺比季節更替更加明顯。因此，低緯度地區日曆的形成更多受到月運週期的影響，而不是迴歸年。然而，在踐行季節性農業的更偏北的氣候帶，迴歸年則更爲重要。隨着羅馬帝國向北擴張，它的活動圖表通常都是根據迴歸年而編排的。
早在羅馬帝國建立幾個世紀以前，埃及人就已制定了市政日曆，規定一年有12個月，每月有30天，此外還有5天用來補充一個近似迴歸年。每10天以特定星羣的出現爲標誌，這些星羣被稱作“德坎”(黃道十度分度)。天狼星剛好在日出之前升起，此時可以看見12個德坎橫跨天空，而這一現象會在每年極其重要的尼羅河泛洪前後出現。埃及人賦予12個德坎的宇宙意義使他們形成一種新的系統，他們將每一個黑夜區間(之後又將每一個白晝區間)分成12等份。這些時段被稱爲日光時，因爲它的持續時間隨着季節更替引起的晝夜長度的變化而變化。夏季日光時長，冬季日光時短;只有在春分和秋分時白晝與黑夜的時長才是一致的。日光時最早被希臘人採用，然後由羅馬人採用並傳到歐洲，一直使用了2500多年。
爲了在白天記錄日光時，發明家們創造了日晷，用太陽陰影的長度和方向來指示時間。水鍾與日晷作用相當，用於在夜晚測量日光時。最早的水鍾之一是一個水盆，盆底附近有一個小孔，水通過小孔滴出來。隨着水降至盆子內表面刻着的小時刻度線以下，水位降低的刻度就表示流逝的時間長度。儘管這些裝置在地中海地區十分好用，但在多雲並常有嚴寒天氣的歐洲北部卻不能一直使用。
機械鐘的出現意味着儘管人們可以調試它以記錄日光時，但機械鐘本身更適合於記錄長度相同的時間段。由此引發了一個問題，即計時該從何時開始。於是14世紀初，許多新型計時系統逐漸形成。人們計劃將一天分爲24個等份，而這些計劃因爲計時起點的術同而不向：意大利時間從日落開始算起，巴比倫時間從日出開始，天文學時間從中午開始，而德國一些大型公共時鐘使用的“大鐘”時間從午夜開始算起。最終，這些計時方法被“小鐘”時間，即法國時間所取代，它將一天分成兩個12小時時段，從午夜開始算起。
最早有記載的以重量驅動的機械鐘1283年建於英國貝德福德郡。這種新型計時器所具有的革命意義既不在於依靠向下的重力提供起動力，也不在於依靠齒輪(至少有1300年的使用歷史)傳遞動力，而在於它使用了一個叫做擒縱機構棘輪裝置的部件。15世紀初人們又創造出了螺旋彈簧，也被稱爲均力圓錐輪。儘管主發條承受着不斷變化的張力，但該裝置仍能爲鐘錶齒輪提供恆力。到了16世紀，人們發明了擺鐘。但由於鐘擺擺動弧度很大，因此並不十分有效。
爲了解決這個問題，原有擒縱機構棘輪裝置的改進裝置1670年在英格蘭發明出來。該裝置被稱爲錨型擒縱機構，以槓桿爲基礎，形狀像一艘船的錨。鐘擺的動作對該設備產生振動，以使它抓緊而後釋放擒縱機構棘輪裝置的每一個齒，從而使得齒輪精確地旋轉。與早期擺鐘中所使用的原始裝置不同，錨型擒縱機構使鐘擺的擺動弧度變得很小。此外，這一發明使得擺鐘可以使用長擺，一秒鐘擺動一下，從而引發了新型落地櫃式造型的開發，也就是落地擺鐘。
如今，高度精確的計時工具爲大多數電子設備設置時間。幾乎所有的計算機都帶有石英鐘以控制其運行。此外，從全球定位系統衛星發射的時間信號不僅校準精密導航設備的功能，還被用於移動電話、即時股票交易系統和全國電力分配網。這些以時間爲基礎的技術已完全成爲日常生活的一部分，只有當它們無法正常工作時，我們纔會意識到人類多麼依賴這些技術。
TEST 1 PASSAGE 2 參考譯文：
美國航空交通管制
A. 1956年美國大峽谷上空發生的一起事故促成了聯邦航空局(FAA)的成立。該局負責管理和監督美國越來越擁擠的天空。由此形成的空中交通管制結構大大增加了飛機在美國的飛行安全，世界其他很多地方也採取了類似的空中交通管制程序。
B.早在大峽谷災難發生之前就存在雛形的航空交通管制(ATC)。早在20世紀20年代初，最早的空中交通管制員在機場附近用燈和標誌旗手動引導飛機。當時，燈標和閃光燈沿着越野路線放置以建立最早的航線。然而，這種純粹的視覺系統在惡劣天氣情況下是無用的。到20世紀30年代，航空交通管制開始使用無線電通訊。首個採用類似於今天的航空交通管制的地方是紐約市，其他主要的大都市緊隨其後。
C.20世紀40年代，航空交通管制中心利用了第二次世界大戰催生出的新研製的雷達和改進後的無線電通訊技術，但管制系統仍然很不成熟。直到聯邦航空局分創建以後，美國纔開始進行全面的領空管制。而這一事件卻是偶然的，因爲噴氣式發動機的產生突然導致大批快速飛機的出現。這些飛機減少了飛行員的誤差幅度，並且需要實際的整套規則以使飛機之間保持良好的分離狀態，在空中安全行駛。
D.很多人認爲，航空交通管制就是一排管理人員坐在國家機場的雷達屏幕前指揮着抵港及離港的交通。這只是整個場景中的一部分。美國聯邦航空局認識到每時每刻都會有許多不同種類的飛機，爲了這樣那樣的目的，在各種各樣的天氣情況下飛行在美國的空中。因此，急需一個能夠容納所有情況的同一體系。
E.爲了迎接這一挑戰，美國聯邦航天局實施了以下重要措施。首先，讓航空交通管制幾乎遍及整個美國。一般來說，離地面365米以及更高的地方，整個國家都被管制空域覆蓋。在某些地區，主要是靠近機場的地帶，管制空域擴大到自地面215米以上的範圍，而在緊鄰機場的區域，管制空域包括地面以上所有區域。管制空域是美國聯邦航空局規定適用的空域。在其他非受控空域，飛行員受到的限制較少。如此一來，那些出於娛樂目的只想短時間飛行而不受美國聯邦航空局規定限制的飛行員就只能停留在365米以下的非受控領空，而希望得到航空局保護的飛行員可以很容易地進人管制空域。
F.然後，美國聯邦航空局確認了兩種類型的飛行環境。在氣象條件良好的情況下，飛行員可按照目視飛行規則(VPR)飛行。該規則主要依靠視覺線索來維持可接受的安全水平。低能見度使建立一套儀表飛行規則(IFR)成爲必需。根據該規則，飛行員依靠飛機儀表盤提供的飛行高度和導航信息確保飛行安全。天氣晴朗時，管制空域內的飛行員可以選擇在目視飛行規則或儀表飛行規則下飛行，而美國聯邦航空局 的規定在同一空域同時適用於兩套規則的實施。但如果飛行員的儀表等級超出或低於了其必須持有的基本飛行員執照規定的等級，飛行員只能選擇遵循儀表飛行規則。
G.管制空域分爲幾個不同的類型，以英文字母命名。非受控空域被定爲F級，而海拔5490米以下非緊鄰機 場的受控空域被定爲E級。5490米以上的所有空域被定爲A級。E級和A級是根據其間飛行的不同飛機類型而劃分的。一般來說，通用航空飛機(這類飛機的飛行高度大多不超過5490米)和商業渦輪螺旋槳飛機在E級空域飛行。5490米以上是大型噴氣機的領空，因爲噴氣式發動機的效率隨着高度的增加而增高。E級和A級之間的區別在於A級空域中所有的操作都遵循儀表飛行規則，飛行員必須具有儀表級別，換言之，必須熟練掌握飛機儀表的使用並獲得許可。因爲航空交通管制對整個空域的控制是至關重要的。其他三個等級：D級、C級和B級用於管理機場附近的區域。這三個級別大致分別適用於小型城市、中等城市和大型城市的機場，包含了一套越來越嚴格的規章制度。例如，目視飛行規則飛行員如要進入C級空域，必須與航空交通管制建立雙向無線電聯繫。航空交通管制無需提供明確的進人許可，但飛行員必須始終遵守在目視飛行規則下飛行的所有規定。如要進人B級空域，比如飛臨主要城市機場，則必須有明確的航空交通管制許可。未經許可進入領空的私人飛行員可能會被吊銷飛行執照。
TEST 1 PASSAGE 3 參考譯文：
心靈感應
人類可以僅憑思想溝通嗎?一個多世紀以來，心靈感應問題一直使科學界意見不一，直至今天依然在學界精英中引發着激烈的爭論。
上世紀70年代以來，世界各地頂尖高校和科研院所的超心理學家冒着遭受那些持懷疑態度的同事們嘲笑的危險，將關於心靈感應的各種斷言假說放人幾十個嚴謹的科學研究中進行試驗。試驗的結果及其啓 示甚至將發現該結果的研究者們也分成了幾派。
一些研究者認爲試驗結果構成令人信服的證據，表明心靈感應是真實存在的。其他超心理學家則認爲該學科曾試圖提出明確的科學論證，但卻失敗了，因此正處於瓦解的邊緣。不過，懷疑者和倡導者卻在一 個問題上達成共識：即迄今爲止令人印象最爲深刻的證據出自所謂的“ganzfeld”(超感官知覺全域測試)實驗中，這一德文術語的意思是“整個領域”。人類在冥想狀態下的心靈感應體驗報告使超心理學家懷疑心靈感應可能包含人與人之間傳遞的“信號”。這種信號十分微弱，以至於往往被正常的大腦活動所淹沒。如此說來，這種信號可能更容易被那些沉浸於冥想般寧靜中的人檢測到。他們所處的“整個領域”有着令人放鬆的燈光，怡人的聲音和溫暖的環境。
超感官知覺全域測試試圖重新營造這些條件，讓參與者坐在一個封閉房間裏的柔軟躺椅上，聽着令人放鬆的聲音，用特殊濾光器將參與者的眼睛矇住，使他們只能看見柔和的粉紅色光線。在早期的超感官知覺全域測試實驗中，心靈感應測試包括識別從大型圖片庫中隨機選擇的四張圖片中的其中一張。試驗的想 法是有一個人作爲“發送者”，嘗試把圖像發送給在封閉房間中休息的“接收者”。傳遞過程結束時，接收者 需要回答四張圖片中的哪一張是剛剛使用過的。隨機猜測的命中率是25%,但如果心靈感應是真實存在的，命中率應該更高。1982年，此項研究的先驅者之一，美國超心理學家Charles Honorton對第一批超感官知覺全域測試研究結果進行了分析。研究結果顯示了高於30%的典型命中率。雖然效果不甚明顯，但統計測試顯示不能將它歸因於偶然。
其言下之意是超感官知覺全域測試方法揭示了心靈感應的真實證據。但這種說法有一個關鍵的漏洞—— 一個在較傳統的科學領域經常被忽視的問題。僅僅由於這種解釋排除了偶然因素並不能證明心靈感應一定存在;通過很多其他的方法也能獲得積極結果。這些可能性既包括“感官泄漏”，即與圖片有關的線索意外地傳給了接收者，也包括徹底的欺詐。作爲迴應，研究者們發表了一份綜述，總結了 1985年以前進行的所有超感官知覺全域測試研究，以表明80%的研究都發現了有統計意義的證據。但他們也同意目前實驗中尚有太多的問題可能導致積極的結果，他們還草擬了一份清單，要求爲今後的研究設立新的標準。
此後，許多研?a href="">咳嗽弊蛄俗遠泄僦躒蠆饈裕饈且恢旨際醯淖遠涮澹簿褪鞘褂?a href="">電腦完成許多關鍵任務，如隨機選擇圖像。通過最大限度地減少人爲參與，這一想法是要將有缺陷的結果最小化。1987年，Honorton使用“薈萃分析”，即從一系列研究中尋找整體結果的統計技術，對上百次的自動超感官知覺全域測試結果進行了研究。結果雖然沒有以往引人注目，卻仍然令人印象深刻。
然而，一些超心理學家仍然爲單個超感官知覺全域測試研究之間缺乏一致性感到煩惱。心靈感應捍衛者指出，要求每一項研究都提供令人印象深刻的證據忽略了一個基本的統計事實：檢測這些微小影響需要大量的樣本支持。如果像目前研究結果表明的那樣，心靈感應的命中率僅僅略高於概率預測的25%，涉及40人左右的典型超感官知覺全域測試也不太可能檢測得到：試驗羣體根本不夠大。只有當大量研究結合在一個薈萃分析之中，心靈感應的微弱信號纔會真正明顯起來。而這似乎正是研究者們所發現的。
然而，他們肯定當然不會發現主流科學家們的態度有任何變化：大部分人仍然完全排斥心靈感應的觀點。至少一部分問題在於心靈感應缺乏合理的機制。
各種理論都被提了出來，很多以理論物理學的深奧思想爲重點。其中包括“量子糾纏”：無論兩組原子間距離多麼遙遠，影響一組原子的事件都會立即影響另一組原子。雖然物理學家們用專門準備的原子演示了“糾纏”，但這一現象是否同樣存在於構成人類頭腦的原子中卻無人知曉。對於這些問題的回答將改變超心理學。這使得一些研究人員認爲該學科的未來不在於收集更多心靈感應的證據，而在與探索其可能的機制。一些工作已經開始進行，研究人員試圖識別在自動超感官知覺全域測試中特別成功的被試者。早期的結果表明有創造力和藝術性的人們的表現要遠遠高於平均水平：在愛丁堡大學的一次研究中，音樂家的測試命中率高達56%。或許更多諸如此類的測試最終將爲研究人員提供他們正在尋求的證據，鞏固加強心靈感應存在的依據。
劍橋雅思閱讀8原文解析(test1)
Passage1
Question 1
答案： D
關鍵詞： early timekeeping invention, cold temperatures
定位原文: D段最後1句“Although these devices performed…”
解題思路: 全文只有該句中提及寒冷氣溫。該句含義爲“儘管這些裝置在地中海地區十分好用，但在多雲並常有嚴寒天氣的歐洲北部卻不能一直使用。”與題幹中描述的內容相符。
Question 2
答案： B
關鍵詞： geography, development of the calendar, farming communities
定位原文： B段內容
解題思路： 該段一共五句話，從第二句開始每一句話都介紹了一個地理位置的變化對calendar的影響。分別是：And, for those living near the equator in particular,e, the calendars that were developed at the lower latitudes, more northern climes, however,...
As the Roman Empire expanded northward, ...
Question 3
答案： F
關鍵詞： pendulum clock, origins
定位原文： F段最後1句“By the 16th century…”
解題思路：含義爲“到了 16世紀，人們發明了擺鐘。但由於鐘擺擺動弧度很大，因此並不十分有效”。此句中devised意爲“發明”，與題幹中的origins對應。
Question 4
答案： E
關鍵詞： simultaneous efforts, different societies, uniform hours
對應原文： E段第3句“The schemes…”
解題思路： 含義爲“人們計劃將一天分爲24個等份，而這些計劃因爲計時起點的不同而不同：意大利時間從日落開始算起，巴比倫時間從日出開始，天文學時間從中午開始，而德國一些大型公共時鐘使用的‘大鐘’時間從午夜開始算起”。24 equal parts與題目中的 uniform hours 相對應, 本段中提到的各具體國家對應題目中的 different societies。
Question 5
答案： B
關鍵詞： civil calendar, months, equal
定位原文： C段第1句“... the Egyptians had formulated a municipal calendar having 12 months…”
解題思路： 該句提到埃及人制定了市政日曆，規定一年有12個月，每月有30天。答案 B 題目中的 months were equal in length 對應文章中的 12 months of 30 days,題目中的 civil calendar 對應文 章中的 municipal calendar,這項發明 是 Egyptians 完成的。
Question 6
答案: F
關鍵詞: day, two equal halves
定位原文: E段最後1句 “ French hours, which split the day into two 12-hour periods … ”
解題思路：題目中的 divide the day into two equal halves 對應文章中的 split the day into two 12-hour periods, 具體指的是 French hours。
Question 7
答案： D
關鍵詞： new cabinet shape
定位原文： G段最後一句 “... and thus led to the development of a new floor-standing case …”
解題思路： 此句中的floor-standing case design就對應着cabinet shape,且該段第一行就出現了 England這個代表國家的詞彙。所以答案爲D。
Question 8
答案: A
關鍵詞: organise, public events
定位原文: A段第1句“.. the Babylonians began to measure…”
解題思路: 題目中的 organize public events 對應文章中的 co-ordinate communal activities,題目中的work schedules 對應文章中的 the shipment of goods 及 planting and harvesting, 這些都是 Babylonians 的所作所爲。
Question 9
答案: (ship’s) anchor / (an/the) anchor
關鍵詞: escapement, resembling
定位原文: G段第2句 “It was called the anchor…”
解題思路： 通過定位詞很容易找到文中定位句，此句中的like對應resembling，所以答案爲(ship’s) anchor / (an/the) anchor。
Question 10
答案: (escape) wheel
關鍵詞： release each tooth, wheel
定位原文： G段第3句“The motion of a pendulum rocks this…”
解題思路: 由圖可知,本題要求找到該圓盤狀物體的名稱,故應有意識地尋找與該形狀有關的詞彙 ;另外此物體上有齒輪,這也可以作 爲答題線索。根據 ase each tooth of the escape wheel 可知,本題答案爲 (escape) wheel。
Question 11
答案: tooth
關鍵詞: release
定位原文: G段第3句“The motion of a pendulum rocks this…”
解題思路: 由圖可知,本題要求找到圓盤物體的支出 部分的名稱。通過解答第 10 題,可以很容 易地判定本題答案爲 tooth。
Question 12
答案： (long)pendulum
關鍵詞： beats, each
定位原文： G段最後1句“Moreover, this invention allowed…”
解題思路： 由圖可知,本題要求找到長形物體的名稱, 且應發出 beat 的動作。同時，本題答案應爲一個單數可數名詞，可通過冠詞幫助找到答案。通過 G 段最後一句中的 a long pendulum which could beat once a second 可以確定本題答案爲 (long) pendulum。
Question 13
答案： second
關鍵詞： beats, each
定位原文： G段最後1句“Moreover, this invention allowed…”
解題思路： 此題可與第12題同時解出，此句中的once對應題幹中的each, 所以答案爲second。
Test 1 Passage 2
Question 14
答案: ii
關鍵詞: aviation disaster，prompts
定位原文: A段第1句“An accident that occurred in …”
解題思路: 本段第1句講述飛機失事是美國聯邦 航空總署成立原因,第 2 句簡述其建立的結 果影響。文章中的 an accident 與選項 ii 中的 disaster對應;文章中的result in與選項ii中 的 prompt 對應 ;文章中的 the establishment of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) 被抽象概括成選項 ii 中的 action。
Question 15
答案: iii
關鍵詞: coincidental developments
定位原文: C段前兩句“In the 1940s, ATG centres could and did…”
解題思路: C段首句說明了 ATC取得的第一個development, 即利用了第二次世界大 戰催生出的新研製的雷達和改進後的無線電通訊技術而建立的不成熟的管制系統。第二句則提到噴氣式發動機的產生突然導致大批快速飛機的出現，因此促使美國開始進行全面的空中管制，兩個逗號之間的部分指出了這一development的偶然性 (fortuitous), 與 iii 中的 coincidental 含義一致。因此答案爲iii。
Question 16
答案： v
關鍵詞： oversimplified
定位原文： D段第1、2句“Many people think is a very incomplete part of the picture.”
解題思路: D段首句闡述了一個大衆觀點(many people think...)，接着第二句指出這個觀點過於片面。題幹中的 oversimplified相當於原句中的 incomplete。
Question 17
答案： iv
關鍵詞： altitude zones
定位原文： E段第2句“First, ATC extends over virtually …”
解題思路： E段第二句中提出讓航空交通管制幾乎遍及整個美國，接着分別講述了不同高度的空域管制情況(from 365m above the ground and higher, 215m above the ground, below 365m...)因此答案爲iv。
Question 18
答案: viii
關鍵詞： weather conditions
定位原文： F段第1句“The FAA then recognized…”
解題思路: F段首句提出FAA確認了兩種飛行環境。接着對這兩種環境進行了解釋說明，即在氣象條件良好的情況下，飛行員可按照目視飛行規則(VFR)飛行;在低能見度的情況下，飛行員則須按照儀表飛行規則(IFR)飛行。因此答案是viii。
Question 19
答案: vii
關鍵詞： airspace categories
定位原文： G段第1句“Controlled airspace is divided into…”
解題思路： G段首句點出此段主要闡述管制空域的分類(controlled airspace…different types)。因此答案爲vii。文章中的 types 與選項 vii 中的 categories 對應。
Question 20
答案： FALSE
關鍵詞： FAA, created as result of
定位原文： A段第1句“An accident that occurred in the skies…”
解題思路： 文章中第 1 句明確說 FAA 成立的原因是空難, 題目中卻說是由於噴氣式引擎出現, 題目表述與文章矛盾。
Question 21
答案： FALSE
關鍵詞： Air Traffic Control, the Grand Canyon crash
定位原文： B段第1句“Rudimentary air traffic control (ATC) existed…”
解題思路： 文章中明確說是ATC existed well before the Grand Canyon disaster, 與題目中 started after 直接相反。
Question 22
答案： NOT GIVEN
關鍵詞： beacons and flashing lights
定位原文： B段第2句“e beacons and flashing lights …”
解題思路: 此題的定位詞在文中原詞出現，按照順序原則可以迅速定位。文中定位處僅指出beacons和flashing lights在當時的使用情況，對於題幹中所指的如今的使用狀況隻字未提。故此題答案爲NOT GIVEN。
Question 23
答案： TRUE
關鍵詞： improvements, radio communication, World War II
定位原文： C段第1句 “oved radio communication brought about by the Second World War...”
解題思路：此題定位很簡單，定位句含義爲“第二次世界大戰催生出的……改進後的無線電通訊技術”，與題幹含義無異。故此題答案爲TRUE。
Question 24
答案: TRUE
關鍵詞: Class F, 365m
定位原文: G段第2句“Uncontrolled airspace …” E段第3、4句和最後1句
解題思路：通過定位詞Class F可快速定位至G段處，但是隻能確定Class F爲uncontrolled airspace,通過該短語及365m可繼續定位於E段。E段定位句說明從365米往上的區間爲controlled airspace，且在大部分near airports的區域，215米以上的區間都是controlled airspace，因此可以逆推出uncontrolled airspace的情況。故此題答案爲TRUE。
Question 25
答案： FALSE
關鍵詞： Class E airspace, IFR
定位原文：G段第7句“The difference between Class E and…”
解題思路：此題通過定位詞能夠迅速定位。定位句的含義爲“E級和A級之間的區別在於A級領空中所有的操作都遵循儀表飛行規則”。顯然題幹信息與定位句內容矛盾。此題還可以按照絕對化詞彙all和must來快速判定答案。故此題答案爲FALSE。
Question 26
答案： TRUE
關鍵詞： pilot, Class C
定位原文：G段第9句“Three other types of airspace,…”
解題思路：此題通過定位詞能夠迅速定位。定位句中的medium-sized與題幹中average-sized屬於同義轉述。故此題答案爲TRUE。
Test 1 Passage 3
Question 27
答案： E
關鍵詞： researchers with differing attitudes, agree on
定位原文：第2段第3句“Sceptics and advocates…”
解題思路：通過題目中定位詞找到文章中的具體表 達:第二段第3句。題目中的differing attitudes 對應文章中的 skeptics and advocates,題目中的 agree on 對應文章中的do concur on。由本句名詞性從句的主幹 from... experiments 即可得出答案。所有選項中提到 experiment 的只有一個。
Question 28：
答案： B
關鍵詞： experiences, meditation
定位原文：第2段第5句話“In this case, such signals might …”
解題思路：題目中要求找到實驗的 啓示,答案出現在下一句中,其中 in a relaxing‘whole field’of light, sound and warmth 是題目中 的 suitable environment 的具體表現。
Question 29：
答案： A
關鍵詞： attitudes, parapsychology, alter
定位原文：第8段第4、5句“Answering such questions would…”
解題思路：第四句中的transform對應題幹中的alter，第五句中才提及研究者們的attitude,即該研究的未來在於探究可能的機制(mechanisms)。故正確答案爲A。
Question 30：
答案： F
關鍵詞： autoganzfeld trials, success
定位原文：第8段倒數第2、3句“Some work has begun already …”
解題思路：此題通過定位詞可以迅速定位到第八段倒數第三句，倒數第二句指出有創造力和藝術性的人們表現得更好。因此可知樣本的選擇對命中率會有很大影響。故正確答案爲F。
Question 31：
答案： sender
關鍵詞： Ganzfeld studies, 1982, person, acting as, four
定位原文：第3段第3句“The idea was that a person…”
解題思路：由空格前冠詞和空格後的定語從句引導詞 who 可知本題需填入一個指代人的單數可數名詞。通過題目中數字 1982 迅速定位至文章第三段。再通過數字 four 定位至該段第 5 行。本題答案爲 sender。
Question 32：
答案： picture/image
關鍵詞： one, random selection, four
定位原文： 第3段第2句“In early ganzfeld experiments…”
解題思路： 此題輕微亂序，但定位詞很明顯且定位句是上一題定位句的前一句。空格所填詞應爲從random selections of four中picked out的賓語。所以此題填picture/image。題幹中的picked out與原文中的chosen from屬於同義轉述。
Question 33：
答案： receiver
關鍵詞： ichthyosaurs, can be determined by, appearance
定位原文：第3段第4句“Once the session was over, this …”
解題思路：此題定位較易。空格所填詞應爲 identify這一動作的發出者，定位句中與之相對應的是指代詞this person,於是倒着往回看上一句，即第31題對應句，可以找出this person的具體指代對象。所以此題填receiver。
Question 34：
答案： sensory leakage
關鍵詞： flaw, positive results
定位原文：第4段第4句“e were many other ways of getting positive results. These ranged from ‘sensory leakage…”
解題思路：此題根據定位詞及順序原則可定位至第四段第四行最後，其中many other ways對應題幹中的factors，具體內容在接下來的一句中。所以此題填sensory leakage。
Question 35：
答案： outright fraud
關鍵詞： or
定位原文：第4段第4句““e were many other ways of getting positive results. These ranged from ‘sensory leakage…”
解題思路：此空與34題爲並列關係。很明顯答案爲 outright fraud。
Question 36：
答案： computers
關鍵詞： 1987, key tasks
定位原文：第5段第1句“…technique which used computers to …”
解題思路： 空格所填詞應爲被用來完成key tasks的對象，文中的perform對應題幹中的were used for。所以此題填computers。
Question 37：
答案： human involvement
關鍵詞： limit
定位原文：第5段第2句“By minimising human involvement...”
解題思路：此題按照順序原則定位，原文中的 minimising對應題幹中的limit,空格所填詞應爲被限制的對象。所以此題填human involvement。
Question 38：
答案： meta-analysis
關鍵詞： results, subjected to a
定位原文： 第5段倒數第2句“In 1987, results from hundreds…”
解題思路： 空格所填詞應爲 subject to的對象。所以此題填meta?-analysis。
Question 39：
答案： lack of consistency
關鍵詞： flaw, different test results
定位原文： 第6段第1句“Yet some parapsychologists…”
解題思路： 此題定位較難，文中的individual ganzfeld studies與題幹中的different test對應。空格所填詞應爲不同實驗結果之間的關係。所以此題填lack of consistency。
Question 40：
答案： big/large enough
關鍵詞： fact, sample group, not
定位原文：第6段倒數第3句“ group is just not big enough.”
解題思路：此題定位較易。空格所填詞應爲 sample groups的特徵，而且此題可以通過否定詞not幫助判斷答案。所以此題填big/large enough。
